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In the literature elite–mass congruence is usually measured in terms of either issue preferences or left–right self-placement. The two forms of congruence are only occasionally used together and are seldom used with the purpose of seeing if levels of congruence were similar. With this intention Portugal is used as an extreme case (due to its low level of clarity regarding party policy alternatives, and its relatively low levels of education, media exposure and political interest). It was found that in many situations the results for MPs–mass congruence were different depending on the use of left–right self-placement or substantive issue preferences.
