Difference in cognitive control ability between trilinguals and bilinguals: evidence from Stroop tasks via a mouse-tracking paradigm

• Lv, Chengwei ^[1] ; Liu, Huanyin ^[1] ; Chen, Jianlin ^[1]
  1. [1] Lanzhou University

     Lanzhou University

     China

     
• Localización: International journal of multilingualism, ISSN 1479-0718, Vol. 23, Nº. 1, 2026, págs. 888-910
• Idioma: inglés
• DOI: 10.1080/14790718.2025.2542511
• Texto completo no disponible (Saber más ...)
• Resumen

  • This study investigates the cognitive control differences between trilingual and bilingual individuals in Stroop tasks using a mouse-tracking paradigm, focusing on cognitive control abilities under varying cognitive demands. Specially, Tibetan-Chinese-English trilinguals and Chinese-English bilinguals were required to finish two versions (single-language and dual-language) of Stroop task in MouseTracker software, through which their response dynamics including temporal data and spatial deviation were recorded and analysed. Three main findings emerged: (1) Cognitive control differences do exist between bilingual and trilingual groups. (2) While both groups demonstrated different levels of adaptive control, trilinguals’ adaptive control exhibit heightened capacity to cope with higher demanding conditions. (3) The inconsistency between RT and mouse-tracking metrics indicates that trilingual and bilingual speakers may exhibit distinct cognitive and behavioural patterns during complex decision-making processes. These findings contribute to our understanding of the consequences of multilingualism on cognitive control, and underscore the value of mouse-tracking approach in capturing complex cognitive processes with rich temporal and spatial data.

• Referencias bibliográficas
  • Antoniou, M. (2019). The advantages of bilingualism debate. Annual Review of Linguistics, 5(1), 395–415. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011718-011820
  • Badie, M. M. (2023). Multilingualism and the affected factors on second language learning. Journal of Language Studies, 7(4), 305–325. https://doi.org/10.25130/lang.7.4.16
  • Barker, R. M., & Bialystok, E. (2019). Processing differences between monolingual and bilingual young adults on an emotion n-back task....
  • Barr, D. J. (2013). Random effects structure for testing interactions in linear mixed-effects models. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, Article...
  • Bartolotti, J., & Marian, V. (2012). Language learning and control in monolinguals and bilinguals. Cognitive Science, 36(6), 1129–1147....
  • Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software,...
  • Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (2016). Multilingual language mixing and creativity. Languages, 1(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages1010006
  • Bialystok, E., & Craik, F. I. (2022). How does bilingualism modify cognitive function? Attention to the mechanism. Psychonomic Bulletin...
  • Bognar, M., Gyurkovics, M., Aczel, B., & van Steenbergen, H. (2024). The curve of control: Nonmonotonic effects of task difficulty on...
  • Braem, S., Bugg, J. M., Schmidt, J. R., Crump, M. J. C., Weissman, D. H., Notebaert, W., & Egner, T. (2019). Measuring adaptive control...
  • Bugg, J. M., & Crump, M. J. (2012). In support of a distinction between voluntary and stimulus-driven control: A review of the literature...
  • Chertkow, H., Whitehead, V., Phillips, N., Wolfson, C., Atherton, J., & Bergman, H. (2010). Multilingualism (but not always bilingualism)...
  • Chung-Fat-Yim, A., Poarch, G. J., Comishen, K. J., & Bialystok, E. (2021). Does language context impact the neural correlates of executive...
  • Damian, M. F., Ye, W., Oh, M., & Yang, S. (2019). Bilinguals as “experts”? Comparing performance of mono- to bilingual individuals via...
  • Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression...
  • Freeman, J. B., & Ambady, N. (2009). Motions of the hand expose the partial and parallel activation of stereotypes. Psychological Science,...
  • Freeman, J. B., & Ambady, N. (2010). Mousetracker: Software for studying real-time mental processing using a computer mouse-tracking method....
  • Gallo, F., & Abutalebi, J. (2024). The unique role of bilingualism among cognitive reserve-enhancing factors. Bilingualism: Language and...
  • Goldfarb, L., & Tzelgov, J. (2007). The cause of the within-language Stroop superiority effect and its implications. Quarterly Journal...
  • Green, D. W. (1998). Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1(2), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728998000133
  • Green, D. W., & Abutalebi, J. (2013). Language control in bilinguals: The adaptive control hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology,...
  • Grundy, J. G. (2020). The effects of bilingualism on executive functions: An updated quantitative analysis. Journal of Cultural Cognitive...
  • Guðmundsdóttir, M. D., & Lesk, V. E. (2019). Does the bilingual advantage extend to trilingualism? International Journal of Multilingualism,...
  • Incera, S., & McLennan, C. T. (2016). Mouse-tracking reveals that bilinguals behave like experts. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition,...
  • Incera, S., & McLennan, C. T. (2018). Bilingualism and age are continuous variables that influence executive function. Aging, Neuropsychology,...
  • Janus, M., & Bialystok, E. (2018). Working memory with emotional distraction in monolingual and bilingual children. Frontiers in Psychology,...
  • Kello, C. T., Plaut, D. C., & MacWhinney, B. (2000). The task dependence of staged versus cascaded processing: An empirical and computational...
  • Kieslich, P., Henninger, F., Wulff, D., Haslbeck, J., & Schulte-Mecklenbeck, M. (2019). Mouse-tracking: A practical guide to implementation...
  • Kroll, J. F., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of...
  • Kuipers, J. R., & Westphal, K. H. (2021). Auditory processing and high task demands facilitate the bilingual executive control advantage...
  • Lemhöfer, K., & Broersma, M. (2012). Lexical Test for Advanced Learners of English (LexTALE) [Database record]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/10.1037/t47085-000
  • Macnamara, B. N., & Conway, A. R. A. (2014). Novel evidence in support of the bilingual advantage: Influences of task demands and experience...
  • Madrazo, A. R., & Bernardo, A. B. (2018). Measuring two types of inhibitory control in bilinguals and trilinguals: Is there a trilingual...
  • Marian, V., Blumenfeld, H. K., Mizrahi, E., Kania, U., & Cordes, A. K. (2013). Multilingual Stroop performance: Effects of trilingualism...
  • Mirman, D. (2014). Growth curve analysis and visualization using R (1st ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315373218
  • Moradi, N., & Gholami, H. (2016). An investigation of attention control ability in monolinguals, bilinguals and trilinguals. International...
  • Naylor, L. J., Stanley, E. M., & Wicha, N. Y. (2012). Cognitive and electrophysiological correlates of the bilingual stroop effect. Frontiers...
  • Paap, K. (2022). The bilingual advantage in executive functioning hypothesis: How the debate provides insight into psychology’s replication...
  • Paap, K. R., & Greenberg, Z. I. (2013). There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Cognitive Psychology,...
  • Paap, K. R., Johnson, H. A., & Sawi, O. (2014). Are bilingual advantages dependent upon specific tasks or specific bilingual experiences?...
  • Paap, K. R., Majoubi, J., Anders-Jefferson, R. T., Iosilevsky, R., & Tate, C. U. (2025). Do bilingual advantages in domain-general executive...
  • Paap, K. R., Majoubi, J., Balakrishnan, N., & Anders-Jefferson, R. T. (2025). Bilingualism, like other types of brain training, does not...
  • Paap, K. R., & Sawi, O. (2014). Bilingual advantages in executive functioning: Problems in convergent validity, discriminant validity,...
  • Pathak, L. S., Vulchanova, M., Pathak, P., & Mishra, R. K. (2024). Trilingual parallel processing: Do the dominant languages grab all...
  • Perquin, M., Vaillant, M., Schuller, A. M., Pastore, J., Dartigues, J. F., Lair, M. L., & Diederich, N. (2013). Lifelong exposure to multilingualism:...
  • Poarch, G. J., & Bialystok, E. (2015). Bilingualism as a model for multitasking. Developmental Review, 35, 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2014.12.003
  • Poarch, G. J., & van Hell, J. G. (2012). Executive functions and inhibitory control in multilingual children: Evidence from second-language...
  • Qu, C., & Zhang, M. (2016). Bilingual advantage in executive control when task demands are considered. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition,...
  • Quétard, B., Spatola, N., Parris, B. A., Ferrand, L., & Augustinova, M. (2023). A mouse-tracking study of the composite nature of the...
  • Quinteros, B. C., & Billick, S. B. (2017). Positive cognitive effects of bilingualism and multilingualism on cerebral function: A review....
  • R Core Team. (2024). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/(open...
  • Sánchez-Azanza, V. A., López-Penadés, R., & Adrover-Roig, D. (2020). More similitudes than differences between bilinguals and monolinguals...
  • Schroeder, S. T., & Marian, V. (2017). Cognitive consequences of trilingualism. International Journal of Bilingualism, 21(6), 754–773....
  • Schroeder, S. R., Marian, V., Shook, A., & Bartolotti, J. (2016). Bilingualism and musicianship enhance cognitive control. Neural Plasticity,...
  • Spinelli, G., & Lupker, S. J. (2023). Robust evidence for proactive conflict adaptation in the proportion-congruent paradigm. Journal...
  • Spinelli, G., & Sulpizio, S. (2024). Is adaptation involved in bilingual language production? A fresh look at the assumptions motivating...
  • Starreveld, P. A., De Groot, A. M. B., Rossmark, B. M. M., & van Hell, J. G. (2014). Parallel language activation during word processing...
  • Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054651
  • Struys, E., Woumans, E., Nour, S., Kepinska, O., & van den Noort, M. (2018). A domain general monitoring account of language switching...
  • van den Noort, M., Struys, E., Bosch, P., Jaswetz, L., Perriard, B., Yeo, S., Barisch, P., Vermeire, K., Lee, S. H., & Lim, S. (2019)....
  • Wirth, R., Foerster, A., Kunde, W., & Pfister, R. (2020). Design choices: Empirical recommendations for designing two-dimensional finger-tracking...
  • Yamamoto, N., Incera, S., & McLennan, C. T. (2016). A reverse Stroop task with mouse-tracking. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 670. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00670
  • Yang, H., & Yang, S. (2017). Are all interferences bad? Bilingual advantages in working memory are modulated by varying demands for controlled...
  • Ye, W., & Damian, M. F. (2023). Effects of conflict in cognitive control: Evidence from mouse-tracking. Quarterly Journal of Experimental...
  • Ye, Y., Mo, L., & Wu, Q. (2017). Mixed cultural context brings out bilingual advantage on executive function. Bilingualism: Language and...
  • Yurtsever, A., Sotebeer, K. N., & Grundy, J. G. (2025). Different bilingual experiences predict different executive functions: Evidence...
  • Zhou, B., & Krott, A. (2016). Data trimming procedure can eliminate bilingual cognitive advantage. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,...
  • Zhou, B., & Krott, A. (2018). Bilingualism enhances attentional control in non-verbal conflict tasks-evidence from ex-Gaussian analyses....