Bilinguals on the footbridge: the role of foreign-language proficiency in moral decision making

• Federico Teitelbaum Dorfman ^[2] ; Boris Kogan ^[3] ; Pablo Barttfeld ^[1] ; Adolfo M. García ^[4]
  1. [1] Universidad Nacional de Córdoba

     Universidad Nacional de Córdoba

     Argentina

     
  2. [2] Universidad de San Andrés, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
  3. [3] Universidad de San Andrés, Buenos Aires, Argentina; National University of Mar del Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
  4. [4] Universidad de San Andrés, Buenos Aires, Argentina; University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA and Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile

  Mostrar afiliaciones +
• Localización: Bilingualism: Language and cognition, ISSN 1366-7289, Vol. 28, Nº 3, 2025, págs. 816-831
• Idioma: inglés
• DOI: 10.1017/S1366728924000312
• Texto completo no disponible (Saber más ...)
• Resumen

  • Socio-cognitive research on bilinguals points to a moral foreign-language effect (MFLE), with more utilitarian choices (e.g., sacrificing someone to save more people) for moral dilemmas presented in the second language (L2) relative to the first language. Yet, inconsistent results highlight the influence of subject-level variables, including a critical underexplored factor: L2 proficiency (L2p). Here we provide a systematic review of 57 bilingualism studies on moral dilemmas, showing that L2p rarely modulates responses to impersonal dilemmas, but it does impact personal dilemmas (with MFLEs proving consistent at intermediate L2p levels but unsystematic at high L2p levels). We propose an empirico-theoretical framework to conceptualize such patterns, highlighting the impact of L2p on four affective mediating factors: mental imagery, inhibitory control, prosocial behavior and numerical processing. Finally, we outline core challenges for the field. These insights open new avenues at the crossing of bilingualism and social cognition research.

• Referencias bibliográficas
  • Abutalebi, J. (2008). Neural aspects of second language representation and language control. Acta Psychologica, 128(3), 466–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ACTPSY.2008.03.014CrossRefGoogle...
  • Altın, E., Okur, N., Yalçın, E., Eraçıkbaş, A. F., & Aktan-Erciyes, A. (2022). Relations between L2 proficiency and L1 lexical property...
  • Amit, E., & Greene, J. D. (2012). You see, the ends don't justify the means. Psychological Science, 23(8), 861–868. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611434965CrossRefGoogle...
  • Anderson, J. A. E., Hawrylewicz, K., & Bialystok, E. (2020). Who is bilingual? Snapshots across the lifespan. Bilingualism: Language and...
  • Andersson, P. A., Erlandsson, A., Västfjäll, D., & Tinghög, G. (2020). Prosocial and moral behavior under decision reveal in a public...
  • Archila-Suerte, P., Zevin, J., Bunta, F., & Hernandez, A. E. (2012). Age of acquisition and proficiency in a second language independently...
  • Baez, S., Patiño-Sáenz, M., Martínez-Cotrina, J., Aponte, D. M., Caicedo, J. C., Santamaría-García, H., Pastor, D., González-Gadea, M. L.,...
  • Bago, B., Kovacs, M., Protzko, J., Nagy, T., Kekecs, Z., Palfi, B., Adamkovic, M., Adamus, S., Albalooshi, S., Albayrak-Aydemir, N., Alfian,...
  • Baron, J., & Goodwin, G. P. (2020). Consequences, norms, and inaction: A critical analysis. Judgment and Decision Making, 15(3), 421–442....
  • Bartels, D. M., Bauman, C. W., Cushman, F. A., Pizarro, D. A., & McGraw, A. P. (2015). Moral judgment and decision making. In Keren, G.,...
  • Bergen, B., Lau, T.-T. C., Narayan, S., Stojanovic, D., & Wheeler, K. (2010). Body part representations in verbal semantics. Memory &...
  • Białek, M., Paruzel-Czachura, M., & Gawronski, B. (2019). Foreign language effects on moral dilemma judgments: An analysis using the CNI...
  • Bialystok, E. (2015). Bilingualism and the development of executive function: The role of attention. Child Development Perspectives, 9(2),...
  • Bialystok, E., & Craik, F. I. M. (2010). Cognitive and linguistic processing in the bilingual mind. Current Directions in Psychological...
  • Birba, A., Beltrán, D., Martorell Caro, M., Trevisan, P., Kogan, B., Sedeño, L., Ibáñez, A., & García, A. M. (2020). Motor-system dynamics...
  • Birba, A., Fittipaldi, S., Cediel Escobar, J. C., Gonzalez Campo, C., Legaz, A., Galiani, A., Díaz Rivera, M. N., Martorell Caro, M., Alifano,...
  • Blasi, D. E., Henrich, J., Adamou, E., Kemmerer, D., & Majid, A. (2022). Over-reliance on English hinders cognitive science. Trends in...
  • Brouwer, S. (2019). The auditory foreign-language effect of moral decision making in highly proficient bilinguals. Journal of Multilingual...
  • Brouwer, S. (2021). The interplay between emotion and modality in the foreign-language effect on moral decision making. Bilingualism: Language...
  • Caldwell-Harris, C. L. (2015). Emotionality differences between a native and foreign language: Implications for everyday life. Current Directions...
  • Caldwell-Harris, C. L., & Ayçiçeǧi-Dinn, A. (2009). Emotion and lying in a non-native language. International Journal of Psychophysiology,...
  • Cancienne, M. B. (2019) Embodying Macbeth: Incantation, visualization, improvisation, and characterization. In Mullen, C. A. (Ed.), Creativity...
  • Cao, F., Zhang, J., Song, L., Wang, S., Miao, D., & Peng, J. (2017). Framing effect in the trolley problem and footbridge dilemma. Psychological...
  • Carron, R., Blanc, N., & Brigaud, E. (2022). Contextualizing sacrificial dilemmas within COVID-19 for the study of moral judgment. PLoS...
  • Čavar, F., & Tytus, A. E. (2018). Moral judgement and foreign language effect: When the foreign language becomes the second language....
  • Chan, Y. L., Gu, X., Ng, J. C. K., & Tse, C. S. (2016). Effects of dilemma type, language, and emotion arousal on utilitarian vs deontological...
  • Christensen, J. F., Flexas, A., Calabrese, M., Gut, N. K., Gomila, A., Decety, J., Van, J., Stock, D., & Leuven, K. U. (2014) Moral judgment...
  • Circi, R., Gatti, D., Russo, V., & Vecchi, T. (2021). The foreign language effect on decision-making: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin...
  • Claussenius-Kalman, H., Hernandez, A. E., & Li, P. (2021). Expertise, ecosystem, and emergentism: Dynamic developmental bilingualism....
  • Conway, P., & Gawronski, B. (2013). Deontological and utilitarian inclinations in moral decision making: A process dissociation approach....
  • Corey, J. D., Hayakawa, S., Foucart, A., Aparici, M., Botella, J., Costa, A., & Keysar, B. (2017). Our moral choices are foreign to us....
  • Costa, A., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2014). How does the bilingual experience sculpt the brain? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15(5), 336–345....
  • Costa, A., Foucart, A., Arnon, I., Aparici, M., & Apesteguia, J. (2014a). “Piensa” twice: On the foreign language effect in decision making....
  • Costa, A., Foucart, A., Hayakawa, S., Aparici, M., Apesteguia, J., Heafner, J., & Keysar, B. (2014b). Your morals depend on language....
  • Costa, A., Corey, J. D., Hayakawa, S., Aparici, M., Vives, M. L., & Keysar, B. (2019). The role of intentions and outcomes in the foreign...
  • Crockett, M. J., Clark, L., Hauser, M. D., & Robbins, T. W. (2010). Serotonin selectively influences moral judgment and behavior through...
  • Crockett, M. J., Siegel, J. Z., Kurth-Nelson, Z., Dayan, P., & Dolan, R. J. (2017). Moral transgressions corrupt neural representations...
  • Cuppini, C., Magosso, E., & Ursino, M. (2013). Learning the lexical aspects of a second language at different proficiencies: A neural...
  • Curşeu, P. L., Fodor, O. C., Pavelea, A. A., & Meslec, N. (2020). “Me” versus “We” in moral dilemmas: Group composition and social influence...
  • Del Maschio, N., Crespi, F., Peressotti, F., Abutalebi, J., & Sulpizio, S. (2022a). Decision-making depends on language: A meta-analysis...
  • Del Maschio, N., Del Mauro, G., Bellini, C., Abutalebi, J., & Sulpizio, S. (2022b). Foreign to whom? Constraining the moral foreign language...
  • Dewaele, J.-M., & Wei, L. (2012). Multilingualism, empathy and multicompetence. International Journal of Multilingualism, 9(4), 352–366....
  • Dijkstra, T. O. N., Wahl, A., Buytenhuijs, F., Van Halem, N., Al-Jibouri, Z., De Korte, M., & Rekké, S. (2019). Multilink: A computational...
  • Djeriouat, H., & Trémolière, B. (2014). The dark triad of personality and utilitarian moral judgment: The mediating role of honesty/humility...
  • Driver, M. Y. (2020). Switching codes and shifting morals: How code-switching and emotion affect moral judgment. International Journal of...
  • Durand López, E. M. (2021). A bilingual advantage in memory capacity: Assessing the roles of proficiency, number of languages acquired and...
  • Dylman, A. S., & Champoux-Larsson, M. F. (2020). It's (not) all Greek to me: Boundaries of the foreign language effect. Cognition,...
  • Elliott, E., & Leach, A. M. (2016). You must be lying because I don't understand you: Language proficiency and lie detection. Journal...
  • Everett, J. A. C., & Kahane, G. (2020). Switching tracks? Towards a multidimensional model of utilitarian psychology. Trends in Cognitive...
  • Everett, J. A. C., Colombatto, C., Awad, E., Boggio, P., Bos, B., Brady, W. J., Chawla, M., Chituc, V., Chung, D., Drupp, M. A., Goel, S.,...
  • Feng, C., & Liu, C. (2022). Resolving the limitations of the CNI model in moral decision making using the CAN algorithm: A methodological...
  • Ferré, P., Guasch, M., Stadthagen-Gonzalez, H., & Comesaña, M. (2022). Love me in L1, but hate me in L2: How native speakers and bilinguals...
  • Fischer, M. H. (2018). Why numbers are embodied concepts. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2347. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02347CrossRefGoogle...
  • García, A. M., Moguilner, S., Torquati, K., García-Marco, E., Herrera, E., Muñoz, E., Castillo, E. M., Kleineschay, T., Sedeño, L., &...
  • García, A. M., de Leon, J., Tee, B. L., Blasi, D. E., & Gorno-Tempini, M. L. (2023). Speech and language markers of neurodegeneration:...
  • Garcia, O. (2017). Bilingual education. In Coulmas, F. (Ed.), The handbook of sociolinguistics (pp. 405–420). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &...
  • Garcia, O., Faghihi, N., Raola, A. R., & Vaid, J. (2021). Factors influencing bilinguals’ speed and accuracy of number judgments across...
  • Gawronski, B., Armstrong, J., Conway, P., Friesdorf, R., & Hütter, M. (2017). Consequences, norms, and generalized inaction in moral dilemmas:...
  • Gawronski, B., Conway, P., Hütter, M., Luke, D. M., Armstrong, J., & Friesdorf, R. (2020). On the validity of the CNI model of moral decision-making:...
  • Geipel, J., Hadjichristidis, C., & Surian, L. (2015). The foreign language effect on moral judgment: The role of emotions and norms. PLoS...
  • Gollan, T. H., Weissbergr, G. H., Runnqvist, E., Montoya, R. I., & Cera, C. M. (2012). Self-ratings of spoken language dominance: A multilingual...
  • Goral, M., Campanelli, L., & Spiro, A. (2015). Language dominance and inhibition abilities in bilingual older adults. Bilingualism: Language...
  • Grant, A., Legault, J., & Li, P. (2019). What do bilingual models tell us about the neurocognition of multiple languages?. In Schwieter,...
  • Greene, J. D. (2014). The cognitive neuroscience of moral judgment and decision making. In Gazzaniga, M. S., & Mangun, G. R. (Eds), The...
  • Greene, J. D. (2015). The rise of moral cognition. Cognition, 135, 39–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.11.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
  • Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement...
  • Greene, J. D., Morelli, S. A., Lowenberg, K., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2008). Cognitive load selectively interferes with utilitarian...
  • Gullifer, J. W., & Titone, D. (2020). Characterizing the social diversity of bilingualism using language entropy. Bilingualism: Language...
  • Gullifer, J. W., Kousaie, S., Gilbert, A. C., Grant, A., Giroud, N., Coulter, K., Klein, D., Baum, S., Phillips, N., & Titone, D. (2021)....
  • Hadjichristidis, C., Geipel, J., & Keysar, B. (2019). The influence of native language in shaping judgment and choice. In Srinivasan,...
  • Harris, C. L., Gleason, J. B., & Ayçiçeǧi, A. (2006). 10. When is a first language more emotional? Psychophysiological evidence from bilingual...
  • Hayakawa, S., & Keysar, B. (2018). Using a foreign language reduces mental imagery. Cognition, 173, 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2017.12.010CrossRefGoogle...
  • Hayakawa, S., Costa, A., Foucart, A., & Keysar, B. (2016). Using a foreign language changes our choices. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,...
  • Hayakawa, S., Tannenbaum, D., Costa, A., Corey, J. D., & Keysar, B. (2017). Thinking more or feeling less? Explaining the foreign-language...
  • Hennig, M., & Hütter, M. (2021). Consequences, norms, or willingness to interfere: A proCNI model analysis of the foreign language effect...
  • Hoshino, N., Dussias, P. E., & Kroll, J. F. (2010). Processing subject-verb agreement in a second language depends on proficiency. Bilingualism:...
  • Hui, N. Y., Yuan, M., Fong, M. C. M., & Wang, W. S. Y. (2020). L2 proficiency predicts inhibitory ability in L1-dominant speakers. International...
  • Hulstijn, J. H. (2011). Language proficiency in native and nonnative speakers: An agenda for research and suggestions for second-language...
  • Hulstijn, J. H. (2012). The construct of language proficiency in the study of bilingualism from a cognitive perspective. Bilingualism: Language...
  • Hulstijn, J. H. (2020). Proximate and ultimate explanations of individual differences in language use and language acquisition. Dutch Journal...
  • Ibáñez, A., Manes, F., Escobar, J., Trujillo, N., Andreucci, P., & Hurtado, E. (2010). Gesture influences the processing of figurative...
  • Imbault, C., Titone, D., Warriner, A. B., & Kuperman, V. (2021). How are words felt in a second language: Norms for 2,628 English words...
  • Inzlicht, M., Bartholow, B. D., & Hirsh, J. B. (2015). Emotional foundations of cognitive control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(3),...
  • Jankowiak, K., & Korpal, P. (2018). On modality effects in bilingual emotional language processing: Evidence from galvanic skin response....
  • Kahane, G. (2015). Sidetracked by trolleys: Why sacrificial moral dilemmas tell us little (or nothing) about utilitarian judgment. Social...
  • Kahane, G., Everett, J. A. C., Earp, B. D., Caviola, L., Faber, N. S., Crockett, M. J., & Savulescu, J. (2018). Beyond sacrificial harm:...
  • Kapa, L. L., & Colombo, J. (2013). Attentional control in early and later bilingual children. Cognitive Development, 28(3), 233. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COGDEV.2013.01.011CrossRefGoogle...
  • Kaushanskaya, M., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Marian, V. (2020). The language experience and proficiency questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Ten years later....
  • Keating, G. D. (2017). L2 proficiency matters in comparative L1/L2 processing research. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20(4), 700–701....
  • Keshmirian, A., Deroy, O., & Bahrami, B. (2022). Many heads are more utilitarian than one. Cognition, 220, 104965. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104965CrossRefGoogle...
  • Keysar, B., Hayakawa, S. L., & An, S. G. (2012). The foreign-language effect. Psychological Science, 23(6), 661–668. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611432178CrossRefGoogle...
  • Klenk, M. (2021). The influence of situational factors in sacrificial dilemmas on utilitarian moral judgments: A systematic review and meta-analysis....
  • Kneer, M., & Hannikainen, I. R. (2022). Trolleys, triage and COVID-19: The role of psychological realism in sacrificial dilemmas. Cognition...
  • Kogan, B., Muñoz, E., Ibáñez, A., & García, A. M. (2020). Too late to be grounded? Motor resonance for action words acquired after middle...
  • Kootstra, G. J., Van Hell, J. G., & Dijkstra, T. (2012). Priming of code-switches in sentences: The role of lexical repetition, cognates,...
  • Körner, A., & Deutsch, R. (2023). Deontology and utilitarianism in real life: A set of moral dilemmas based on historic events. Personality...
  • Körner, A., Joffe, S., & Deutsch, R. (2019). When skeptical, stick with the norm: Low dilemma plausibility increases deontological moral...
  • Körner, A., Deutsch, R., & Gawronski, B. (2020). Using the CNI model to investigate individual differences in moral dilemma judgments....
  • Kroneisen, M., & Heck, D. W. (2020). Interindividual differences in the sensitivity for consequences, moral norms, and preferences for...
  • Kunnari, A., Sundvall, J. R. I., & Laakasuo, M. (2020). Challenges in process dissociation measures for moral cognition. Frontiers in...
  • Langdon, H. W., Wiig, E. H., & Nielsen, N. P. (2005). Dual-dimension naming speed and language-dominance ratings by bilingual Hispanic...
  • Leibovich, T., Katzin, N., Harel, M., & Henik, A. (2017). From “sense of number” to “sense of magnitude”: The role of continuous magnitudes...
  • Li, P., & Jeong, H. (2020). The social brain of language: Grounding second language learning in social interaction. npj Science of Learning,...
  • Liberto, G. M. D., Nie, J., Yeaton, J., Khalighinejad, B., Shamma, S. A., & Mesgarani, N. (2021). Neural representation of linguistic...
  • Lim, N. (2016). Cultural differences in emotion: Differences in emotional arousal level between the East and the West. Integrative Medicine...
  • Liu, C., Wang, H., Timmer, K., & Jiao, L. (2022). The foreign language effect on altruistic decision making: Insights from the framing...
  • Lopes da Cunha, P., Fittipaldi, S., González Campo, C., Kauffman, M., Rodríguez-Quiroga, S., Yacovino, D. A., Ibáñez, A., Birba, A., &...
  • Lucifora, C., Martino, G., Curcuruto, A., Salehinejad, M. A., & Vicario, C. M. (2021). How self-control predicts moral decision making:...
  • Luke, D. M., & Gawronski, B. (2022). Temporal stability of moral dilemma judgments: A longitudinal analysis using the CNI model. Personality...
  • Marian, V., & Hayakawa, S. (2021). Measuring bilingualism: The quest for a bilingualism quotient. Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(2), 527–548....
  • Marian, V., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Kaushanskaya, M. (2007). The language experience and proficiency questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing language...
  • McDonald, M. M., Defever, A. M., & Navarrete, C. D. (2017). Killing for the greater good: Action aversion and the emotional inhibition...
  • McFarlane, S., & Perez, H. C. (2020). Some challenges for research on emotion and moral judgement: The moral foreign-language effect as...
  • McLean, S., Stewart, J., & Batty, A. O. (2020). Predicting L2 reading proficiency with modalities of vocabulary knowledge: A bootstrapping...
  • Michelini, Y., Acuña, I., Guzmán, J. I., & Godoy, J. C. (2019). Latemo-e: A film database to elicit discrete emotions and evaluate emotional...
  • Miller, D., Solis-Barroso, C., & Delgado, R. (2021). The foreign language effect in bilingualism: Examining prosocial sentiment after...
  • Miozzo, M., Navarrete, E., Ongis, M., Mello, E., Girotto, V., & Peressotti, F. (2020). Foreign language effect in decision-making: How...
  • Miri, M. A., & Pishghadam, R. (2021). Toward an emotioncy based education: A systematic review of the literature. Frontiers in Psychology,...
  • Nasello, J. A., & Triffaux, J. (2023). The role of empathy in trolley problems and variants: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British...
  • Navajas, J., Heduan, F. Á., Garbulsky, G., Tagliazucchi, E., Ariely, D., & Sigman, M. (2021). Moral responses to the COVID-19 crisis....
  • Nguyen, T. K., & Astington, J. W. (2014). Reassessing the bilingual advantage in theory of mind and its cognitive underpinnings. Bilingualism:...
  • Oh, T. M., Graham, S., Ng, P., Yeh, I. B., Chan, B. P. L., & Edwards, A. M. (2019). Age and proficiency in the bilingual brain revisited:...
  • Okon-Singer, H., Hendler, T., Pessoa, L., & Shackman, A. J. (2015). The neurobiology of emotion-cognition interactions: Fundamental questions...
  • Olson, D. J. (2023). A systematic review of proficiency assessment methods in bilingualism research. International Journal of Bilingualism...
  • Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan,...
  • Park, H. I., Solon, M., Dehghan-Chaleshtori, M., & Ghanbar, H. (2022). Proficiency reporting practices in research on second language...
  • Pattij, T., & Schoffelmeer, A. N. M. (2015). Serotonin and inhibitory response control: Focusing on the role of 5-HT1A receptors. European...
  • Pavlenko, A. (2017). Do you wish to waive your rights? Affect and decision-making in multilingual speakers. Current Opinion in Psychology,...
  • Pearson, J., Naselaris, T., Holmes, E. A., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2015). Mental imagery: Functional mechanisms and clinical applications. Trends...
  • Petersen, I. T., Hoyniak, C. P., McQuillan, M. E., Bates, J. E., & Staples, A. D. (2016). Measuring the development of inhibitory control:...
  • Pfattheicher, S., Nielsen, Y. A., & Thielmann, I. (2022). Prosocial behavior and altruism: A review of concepts and definitions. Current...
  • Pishghadam, R., Adamson, B., & Shayesteh, S. (2013). Emotion-based language instruction (EBLI) as a new perspective in bilingual education....
  • Reese, M., Bryant, D., & Ethridge, L. (2020). Biomarkers for moral cognition: Current status and future prospects for neurotransmitters...
  • Riva, P., Manfrinati, A., Sacchi, S., Pisoni, A., & Romero Lauro, L. J. (2019). Selective changes in moral judgment by noninvasive brain...
  • Santilli, M., Vilas, M. G., Mikulan, E., Martorell Caro, M., Muñoz, E., Sedeño, L., Ibáñez, A., & García, A. M. (2019). Bilingual memory,...
  • Sato, M. (2017). Interaction mindsets, interactional behaviors, and L2 development: An affective-social-cognitive model. Language Learning,...
  • Schaich Borg, J., Hynes, C., Van Horn, J., Grafton, S., & Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2006). Consequences, action, and intention as factors...
  • Schiller, D., Yu, A. N. C., Alia-Klein, N., Becker, S., Cromwell, H. C., Dolcos, F., Eslinger, P. J., Frewen, P., Kemp, A. H., Pace-Schott,...
  • Shin, H. I., & Kim, J. (2017). Foreign language effect and psychological distance. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 46(6), 1339–1352....
  • Stankovic, M., Biedermann, B., & Hamamura, T. (2022). Not all bilinguals are the same: A meta-analysis of the moral foreign language effect....
  • Sulpizio, S., Del Maschio, N., Del Mauro, G., Fedeli, D., & Abutalebi, J. (2020). Bilingualism as a gradient measure modulates functional...
  • Sutton, T. M., Altarriba, J., Gianico, J. L., & Basnight-Brown, D. M. (2007). The automatic access of emotion: Emotional Stroop effects...
  • Takamatsu, R. (2018). Turning off the empathy switch: Lower empathic concern for the victim leads to utilitarian choices of action. PLoS ONE,...
  • Tasso, A., Sarlo, M., & Lotto, L. (2017). Emotions associated with counterfactual comparisons drive decision-making in footbridge-type...
  • Tassy, S., Oullier, O., Mancini, J., & Wicker, B. (2013). Discrepancies between judgment and choice of action in moral dilemmas. Frontiers...
  • Thanissery, N., Parihar, P., & Kar, B. R. (2020). Language proficiency, sociolinguistic factors and inhibitory control among bilinguals....
  • Thomson, J. J. (1976). Killing, letting die, and the trolley problem. Monist, 59(2), 204–217. https://doi.org/10.5840/monist197659224CrossRefGoogle...
  • Thomson, J. J. (1985). The trolley problem. The Yale Law Journal, 94(6), 1395. https://doi.org/10.2307/796133CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  • Titone, D. A., & Tiv, M. (2022). Rethinking multilingual experience through a systems framework of bilingualism. Bilingualism: Language...
  • Tomoschuk, B., Ferreira, V. S., & Gollan, T. H. (2019). When a seven is not a seven: Self-ratings of bilingual language proficiency differ...
  • Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211(4481), 453–458. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7455683CrossRefGoogle...
  • Van Bavel, J. J., FeldmanHall, O., & Mende-Siedlecki, P. (2015). The neuroscience of moral cognition: From dual processes to dynamic systems....
  • van den Bos, K., Müller, P. A., & Damen, T. (2011). A behavioral disinhibition hypothesis of interventions in moral dilemmas. Emotion...
  • Van Rinsveld, A., Schiltz, C., Landerl, K., Brunner, M., & Ugen, S. (2016). Speaking two languages with different number naming systems:...
  • Veríssimo, J. (2021). Analysis of rating scales: A pervasive problem in bilingualism research and a solution with Bayesian ordinal models....
  • Vukovic, N. (2013). When words get physical: Evidence for proficiency-modulated somatotopic motor interference during second language comprehension....
  • Wagner, E. (2013). Assessing listening. In Kunnan, A. J. (Ed.), The companion to language assessment (pp. 47–63). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley...
  • Wartenburger, I., Heekeren, H. R., Abutalebi, J., Cappa, S. F., Villringer, A., & Perani, D. (2003). Early setting of grammatical processing...
  • Winskel, H., & Bhatt, D. (2020). The role of culture and language in moral decision-making. Culture and Brain, 8(2), 207–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40167-019-00085-yCrossRefGoogle...
  • Wong, D. (2019). Definition of morality. In LaFollette, H. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of ethics (pp. 1–9). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley...
  • Wong, G., & Ng, B. C. (2018). Moral judgement in early bilinguals: Language dominance influences responses to moral dilemmas. Frontiers...
  • Xue, S. W., Wang, Y., & Tang, Y. Y. (2013). Personal and impersonal stimuli differentially engage brain networks during moral reasoning....
  • Yik, M., Mues, C., Sze, I. N. L., Kuppens, P., Tuerlinckx, F., De Roover, K., Kwok, F. H. C., Schwartz, S. H., Abu-Hilal, M., Adebayo, D....
  • Youssef, F. F., Dookeeram, K., Basdeo, V., Francis, E., Doman, M., Mamed, D., Maloo, S., Degannes, J., Dobo, L., Ditshotlo, P., & Legall,...
  • Yu, H., Siegel, J. Z., & Crockett, M. J. (2019). Modeling morality in 3-D: Decision-making, judgment, and inference. Topics in Cognitive...
  • Zell, E., & Krizan, Z. (2014). Do people have insight into their abilities? A metasynthesis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(2),...
  • Zeybek, T. (2021). An investigation into the foreign language effect in decision making and judgment [Master's thesis]. Pamukkale University,...
  • Zhang, L., Kong, M., Li, Z., Zhao, X., & Gao, L. (2018). Chronic stress and moral decision-making: An exploration with the CNI model....
  • Zheng, L., Mobbs, D., & Yu, R. (2020). The behavioral and neural basis of foreign language effect on risk-taking. Neuropsychologia, 136(November...