Taking the Evolution of the Standards of Proof for a Criminal Conviction Seriously

• Autores: Jacopo Della Torre
• Localización: Quaestio facti. Revista internacional sobre razonamiento probatorio, ISSN-e 2604-6202, Nº. 8, 2025, págs. 155-216
• Idioma: inglés
• DOI: 10.33115/udg_bib/qf.i8.23112
• Enlaces
  • Texto completo
• Dialnet Métricas: 3 Citas
• Resumen

  • The article offers a diachronic and comparative analysis of different standards of proof for a criminal conviction. The first part focuses on the attempt of medieval and early modern Ro-man-canon systems to clarify this type of rule through a network of legal proofs. The second part analyses the origins of the main standards for a criminal conviction used today: moral certainty, beyond reasonable doubt and intime conviction. The final part looks to the future, asking whether traditional decision-making criteria should be maintained or replaced by new ones based on the principles of contemporary epistemology.

• Referencias bibliográficas
  • Abbagnano (1998). Dizionario di filosofia. Utet.
  • Accatino, D. (2011). Certezas, dudas y propuesta en torno al estándar de la prueba penal. Revista de Derecho de la Pontificia Universidad...
  • Aguilera, E. (2021). Dudando de las dudas sobre la formulación de estándares de prueba jurídicos (razonablemente) objetivos. In C. Vázquez...
  • Ala, R. (1829). Pratica criminale (Vol. II). Giunchi e Comp.
  • Ala, R. (1839). Criminalis juris et praxis instituta usi etiam forensi accommodata (Vol. I). Mugnoz.
  • Alcácer Guirao, R. (2021). Algunas dudas sobre la duda razonable. Prueba de descargo, estándares de prueba e in dubio pro reo. Revista Electrónica...
  • Alessi Palazzolo, G. (1979). Prova legale e pena. La crisi del sistema tra Evo Medio e moderno.
  • Jovene. Allard, A. (1868). Histoire de la justice criminelle au seizième siècle. Libraire-éditeur.
  • Allen, R.J. (2013). Los estándares de prueba y los límites del análisis jurídico. In C. Vázquez (Ed.), Estándares de prueba y prueba científica...
  • Allen, R.J. (2014). Burdens of proof. Law, Probability and Risk, 13(3-4), p. 195-219.
  • Allen, R. and Pardo M. (2007), The Problematic Value of Mathematical Models of Evidence. Journal of Legal Studies, 36(1), p. 107-140.
  • Allen, R. and Pardo M.S (2019). Relative plausibility and its critics. The International Journal of Evidence & Proof, 23(1-2), p. 5-59.
  • Ambos, K. (2023). “Intime conviction” in Germany. Conceptual foundations, historical development and current meaning. Quaestio facti, 4, p....
  • Anderson, T., Schum D. and Twining, W. (2005). Analysis of Evidence (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  • Angles, J. (1587). Flores theologicarum quaestionum in secundum librum Sententiarum. Pars I. Stephanum Michaelem.
  • Antonino da Firenze (1740). Summa theologica. Pietro Ballerini.
  • Arrivabene, F. (1814). Della certezza morale nei giudicj penali. Nicolò Bettoni.
  • Barbacovi, F. V. (1820). Degli argomenti ed indizi nei giudizi criminali. Società tipografica dei classici italiani.
  • Baldo degli Ubaldi (1578). In Quartum et Quintum Codicis Libr. Venice.
  • Balkin, J.M. (2017). The Three Laws of Robotics in the Age of Big Data. Ohio State Law Journal, 78(5), p. 1217-1241.
  • Baron (2022). Certainty, in The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/certainty.
  • Bartolo da Sassoferrato (1562). In Ius Universum Civile, Commentaria: Digestum veterum. Froben.
  • Bartolomeo da Saliceto (1578). In Tertium & Quartum Codicis Libros. Aquilae.
  • Basilico, H. (1691). Decisiones Criminales. Thypographia Joannis Philippi Cecchi.
  • Beccaria (1880). On Crimes and Punishments. In J.A. Farrer, Crimes and Punishments. Including a New Translation of Beccaria’s “Dei delitti...
  • Benedict XIV (1778). Sanctissimi domini nostri Benedicti Papae XIV Bullarium tomus tertius: in quo continentur constitutiones, epistolae aliaque...
  • Bentham, J. (1827). Rationale of Judicial Evidence (Vol. I). Hunt and Clarke.
  • Best, W.M. (1849). A Treatise on the Principles of Evidence and Practice as to Proof in Court of Common Law. Sweet.
  • Bianchi, M. (1554). Tractatus de indiciis homicidii ex proposito comissi & de alijs indicijs homicidij et furti ad legem finalem ff. de...
  • Biel, G. (1574). Commentarius in Quartum Librum Sententiarum, Bozolam. Bossi, E. (1566). Tractatus varii, Jacobi Junctae.
  • Blackstone, W. (1770). Commentaries on the Laws of England (Vol. IV). Clarendon Press. Briganti, T. (1842). Pratica criminale (Vol. I). Gabriele...
  • Broun, K. S., Kaye, D. H., Dix, G. E., Imwinkelried, E. J., Mosteller, R. P., Roberts, E. F. and Swift, E. (2014). McCormick on Evidence (7th...
  • Brugnoli, G. (1846). Della certezza e prova criminale col confronto di varie legislazioni d’Europa ed in specie d’Italia. Carlo Vincenzi.
  • Caprioli, F. (2009). L’accertamento della responsabilità penale “oltre ogni ragionevole dubbio”. Rivista italiana di diritto e procedura penale,...
  • Caprioli, F (2017). Verità e giustificazione nel processo penale. Revista Brasileira de Direito Processual Penal, 3(1), p. 317-341.
  • Carlizzi, G. (2018). Libero convincimento e ragionevole dubbio nel processo penale. Bonomo editore.
  • Carmignani, G. (1852). Scritti inediti (Vol. IV). Giuseppe Giusti.
  • Caramuel Lobkowitz, I. (1675). Theologiae moralis fundamentalis (Lib. IV). Officina Anissoniana.
  • Carpzov, B. (1684). Pratica nova imperialis saxonica rerum criminalium, Balthas. Christophori Wustii.
  • Carnelutti, F. (1963). Verso la riforma del processo penale. Morano.
  • Catalano, E.M. (2016). Ragionevole dubbio e logica della decisione. Giuffrè.
  • Cherubini, P. (2024). Guida al ragionamento probatorio con le reti bayesiane. Giuffrè.
  • Claro, G. (1586). Opera omnia sive practica civilis atque criminalis. Augustae Taurinorum.
  • Clermont, K.M. (2013). Standard of Decision in Law. Carolina Academic Press.
  • Cohen, L.J. (1977). The Probable and the Provable. Clarendon Press.
  • Cohen., L.J. (1998). Introduzione alla filosofia dell’induzione e della probabilità. Giuffrè.
  • Concina, D. (1761). Della storia del probabilismo e del rigorismo. Simone Occhi.
  • Conti, C. (2020). Il BARD paradigma di metodo: legalizzare il convincimento senza riduzionismi aritmetici. Diritto penale e processo, 6, p....
  • Contigiani, N. (2007). Il processo penale pontificio. Tra ancoraggi inquisitori e spettro riformista (1831-1858). Rivista di storia del diritto...
  • Contissa, G., Lasagni, G., Sartor, G. (2019). Quando a decidere in materia penale sono (anche) algoritmi e IA: alla ricerca di un rimedio...
  • Cordero, F. (2012). Procedura penale (9th ed.). Giuffrè.
  • Dahlman C. (2018). Determining the base rate for guilt. Law, Probability and Risk, 17(1), p. 15-28.
  • Dahlman C. (2020). De-Biasing Legal Fact-Finders With Bayesian Thinking. Topics in Cognitive Science, 12(4), p. 1115-1131.
  • Dahlman C. (2024). What does it mean to be «plausible»? Quaestio facti, 7, p. 91-102.
  • Dahlman, C. and Kolfaath, E. (2021). The Problem of the Prior in Criminal Trials. In C. Dahlman, A. Stein and G. Tuzet (Eds.), Philosophical...
  • Damaška, M. (2019). Evaluation of Evidence. Pre-Modern and Modern Approaches. Cambridge University Press.
  • Damaška, M. (2022). The future of free proof in criminal cases. In P. Bárd (Ed.). Liber Amicorum Karoly Bard (pp. 197-204, Vol. II). L’Harmattan.
  • Daniele, M. (2009). Regole di esclusione e regole di valutazione della prova. Giappichelli.
  • Deciani, T. (1613). Tractatus criminalis (Vol. I). Ioannis Bringeri.
  • De Coras (1668). In aliquot titulos & capita legum Secundi ac tertii tomi Pandectarum. Antonium Vicentium.
  • De Damhouder, J. (1556). Praxis rerum criminalium. Antwerp.
  • Dei Vecchi, D. (2022). Prueba sin convicción en su justa medida. Doxa, 45, p. 337-373.
  • Dalia, G. (2018). Convincimento giudiziale e ragionevole dubbio. Wolters Kluwer-Cedam.
  • Della Torre, J. (2014). Il lungo cammino della giurisprudenza italiana sull’“oltre ogni ragionevole dubbio”. Diritto penale contemporaneo....
  • Della Torre, J. (2015). Standard di prova e condanna penale: una ricostruzione metateorica e metagiurisprudenziale. Materiali per una storia...
  • Della Torre, J. (2019). La giustizia penale negoziata in Europa. Miti, realtà e prospettive. Wolter-Kluwer.
  • Della Torre, J. (2023a). Gli standard probatori per la condanna penale tra storia e attualità. La legislazione penale. https://www.lalegislazionepenale.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Della-Torre-LP-1.pdf
  • Della Torre, J. (2023b). Standard probatori, efficienza e giustizia penale. Politica del diritto, 54(3), pp. 327-364.
  • Della Torre, J. (2024). La ragionevole previsione di condanna alla prova della realtà giudiziaria. La legislazione penale. https://www.lalegislazionepenale.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Della-Torre_LP_.pdf.
  • Delmas-Marty, M. (1996). La preuve pénale. Droits, 23, p. 53-65.
  • De Lugo, J. (1696). Disputationes Scholasticae et morales. Petri Borde, Joan & Petri Arnaud.
  • De Rosa, C.A. (1680). Decretorum M.C. Praxis Criminalis. Hyacinthum Passarum.
  • Descartes, R. (1667). Les Principes de la Philosophie. Henry Le Gras.
  • Dezza, E. (2013). Lezioni di storia del processo penale. Pavia University Press.
  • Dripps, D.A. (1987). The Constitutional Status of the Reasonable Doubt Rule. California Law Review, 75, p. 1665-1718.
  • Duce, M. (2024). Plea bargaining and the risk of wrongful convictions: a comparative overview. In M. Langer et al. (eds.), Research Handbook...
  • Ede, R. and Ford, C. (2004). The Law Society, Study of The Laws of Evidence in Criminal Proceedings throughout the European Union, Summary...
  • Eggleston, R. (2004). Prova, conclusione probatoria e probabilità (2nd ed.). Giuffrè.
  • Esmein, A. (1882). Histoire de la procédure criminelle en France et spécialement de la procédure inquisitoire, depuis le XIIe siècle jusqu’à...
  • Esnard, C., Grihom, M. J. and Leturmy, L. (2015). L’intime conviction : incidences sur le jugement des jurés et magistrates. Rapport Final....
  • European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice [CEPEJ] (2018). European ethical Charter on the use of Artificial Intelligence in judicial...
  • European Court of Human Rights [ECtHR] (1950). European Convention on Human Rights. https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/d/echr/convention_ENG
  • Farinacci, P. (1607). Consilia sive responsa atque Decisiones causarum Criminalium. Horatij Cardon.
  • Farinacci, P. (1616). Praxis et theorica criminalis, Horatij Cardon.
  • Ferrer Beltrán, J. (2004). Prova e verità nel diritto. Il Mulino.
  • Ferrer Beltrán, J. (2007). La valutazione razionale della prova. Giuffrè.
  • Ferrer Beltrán, J. (2021a). Proven Facts, Beliefs, and Reasoned Verdicts. In C. Dahlman, A. Stein and G. Tuzet (eds.), Philosophical Foundations...
  • Ferrer Beltrán, J. (2021b). Prueba sin convicción. Estándares de prueba y debido proceso. Marcial Pons.
  • Ferrer Beltrán, J. and Tuzet, G. (2018). Sulla necessità degli standard di prova per la giustificazione delle decisioni giudiziali. Diritto...
  • Ferrua, P. (2020). Onere della prova, regola di giudizio e standard probatorio. Cassazione penale, 60, p. 2639-2649.
  • Feuerbach, P.J.A. (1813). Betrachtungen über das Geschwornen-Gericht. Philipp Krüll.
  • Filangieri, G. (1806). La scienza della legislazione (Vol. I). Santini.
  • Finklestein M.O. and Fairley W.B. (1970). A Bayesian approach to Identification Evidence. Harward Law Review, 83(3), 489-517.
  • Fiorelli, P. (2023). La tortura giudiziaria nel diritto comune. Giuffrè.
  • Fortunato, S.J. (1996). Instructing on Reasonable Doubt after Victor v. Nebraska: A Trial Judge’s Certain Thoughts on Certainty. Villanova...
  • Franklin, J. (2001). The Science of Conjecture. Evidence and Probability before Pascal. John Hopkins University.
  • Friedman, R.D. (1997). Answering the Bayesioskeptical Challenge. The International Journal of Evidence and Proof, 1, p. 276-291.
  • Friedman, R.D. (2000). A Presumption of Innocence, Not of Even Odds. Stanford Law Review, 52(4), p. 873-587.
  • Gail, A. (1613). Observationum practicarum Imperialis Camerae. Petrum de Farris.
  • Garbolino (2014). Probabilità e logica della prova. Giuffrè.
  • Garlati, L. (2004). Il diabolico intreccio. Reo convinto e indizi indubitati nel commento di Bartolomeo da Saliceto (C. 4.19.25): alle radici...
  • Gerson, J. (1706). Joannis Gersoni Opera Omnia (t. I). Sumptibus Societatis.
  • Giuliani, G. (1840). Istituzioni di diritto criminale col commento della legislazione gregoriana. Viarchi.
  • Glaser (1883). Beiträge zur Lehre vom Bewies im Strafprozess. Duncker und Humblot.
  • González Lagier, L. (2020). ¿Es posible formular un estándar de prueba preciso y objetivo? Algunas dudas desde un enfoque argumentativo de...
  • Greenleaf, S. (1842). A Treatise on the Law of Evidence (Vol. I). Charles C. Little & James Brown.
  • Guérin, M.C. (2015). Intime conviction et doute. Au-delà d’une antinomie apparente…Ce que révèe leur étude comparée. Annales Médico-psychologiques,...
  • Haack, S. (2014). Evidence Matters, Science, Proof, and Truth in the Law. Cambridge University Press.
  • Hale, M. (1778). History of the Pleas of the Crown (Vol. I). George Wilson.
  • Hamer, D. (2007). The Presumption of Innocence and Reverse Burdens: A Balancing Act. Cambridge Law Journal, 66(1), p. 142-171.
  • Hélie, F. (1867). Traité de l’instruction criminelle (Vol. VIII). Henri Plon.
  • Hélie, F. (1870). Des délits et des peines par Beccaria. Duexiéme edition. Avec une introduction et un commentaire Par M. Fausin Hélie. Gaillaumin.
  • Ho, H.L. (2008). A Philosophy of Evidence Law. Justice in the Search for Truth. Oxford University Press.
  • Human Rights Committee. United Nations (2007). General comment no. 32. Article 14: right to equality before courts and tribunals and to a...
  • Iacoviello, F.M. (2006). Lo “standard probatorio dell’“al di là di ogni ragionevole dubbio” e il suo controllo in cassazione. Cassazione penale,...
  • Iacoviello, F.M. (2023). La Cassazione penale. Fatto, diritto e motivazione (2nd ed.). Giuffrè.
  • Incampo, A. and Scalfati, A. (eds.) (2017). Giudizio penale e ragionevole dubbio. Cacucci.
  • International Criminal Court [ICC] (2021). Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/2024-05/Rome-Statute-eng.pdf
  • Jellema, H. (2023). (Im)probable stories: combining Bayesian and explanation-based accounts of rational criminal proof. University of Groningen....
  • Judicial College (2023). The Crown Court Compendium. Part I: Jury and Trial Management and Summing Up. https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Crown-Court-Compendium-Part-IJuly-2024.pdf
  • Kadane J. and Schum D.A. (1996), A Probabilistic Analysis of the Sacco and Vanzetti Evidence. Wiley.
  • Kaye, D.H. (1999). Clarifying the burden of persuasion: what Bayesian decision rules do and do not do. The International Journal of Evidence...
  • Keane, A and McKeown, P. (2019). Time to Abandon “Beyond Reasonable Doubt” and “Sure”: The Case for a New Direction on the Criminal Standard...
  • Langbein, J. (1974). Prosecuting Crime in the Renaissance. England, Germany, France. Harvard University Press.
  • Langbein, J. (2003). The Origins of Adversary Criminal Trial. Oxford University Press.
  • Laudan, L. (2005). Por qué un estándar de prueba subjetivo y ambiguo no es un estándar. Doxa, 28, p. 95-113.
  • Laudan, L. (2006). Truth, Error, and Criminal Law. Cambridge University Press.
  • Le Brun de La Rochette, C. (1611). Le Procès criminel divisé en deux livres (Vol. II). Pierre Calles.
  • Leclerc, H. (1995). L’intime conviction du juge: norme démocratique de la preuve. Le for intérieur, p. 206-213.
  • Lempert, R. (2003). La nuova dottrina delle prove: un’analisi della formazione della prova concludente. In P. Tillers and E.D. Green (eds.),...
  • Levy, J. P. (1939). La Hiérarchie des preuves dans le droit savant du Moyen-Age, depuis la Renaissance du droit romain jusqu’à la fin du XIVe...
  • Lillquist, E. (2005). Absolute Certainty and the Death Penalty. American Criminal Law Review, 42(1), p. 45-91.
  • Lucchini, L. (1895). Elementi di procedura penale. Barbera.
  • Lupária, L. (2021). Notazioni controintuitive su intelligenza artificiale e libero convincimento. In Intelligenza artificiale, giurisdizione...
  • Makor, A.R (2024). Risks of Incorrent Use of Probabilities in Court and What to Do about Them. In A. Placani and S. Broadhead (eds.), Risk...
  • Mackor, A.R., Jellema, H. and van Koppen, P.L. (2021). Explanation-Based Approaches to Reasoning about Evidence and Proof in Criminal Trials....
  • Martinon, J. (1663). Disputationes theologicae (Vol. II). Sebastianum Cramoisy.
  • Mascardi, G. (1585). De probationibus (Vol. I, Sigif ). Feyerabendij.
  • Mavidal, M.J. and Laurent, M.E. (Eds.) (1885), Archives Parlamentaires de 1787 a 1860, Recueil Complet des Débats Législatifs et Politiques...
  • Mazza, O. (2012). Il ragionevole dubbio nella toeria della decisione. Criminalia, p. 357-371.
  • Mazza, O. (2025). Distopia del processo artificiale. Archivio penale web, 1. https://archiviopenale.it/File/DownloadArticolo?codice=36e0a0e4-7576-4379-a107-a31292613919&idarticolo=46845
  • McKeown, P. (2022). Dreaded questions, doubtful answers & the trouble with ‘sure’. NewLawJournal, 7989. https://www.newlawjournal.co.uk/content/dreaded-questions-doubtful-answers-the-trouble-withsure-
  • Medina, F. B. (1580). Expositio in prima secundae Angelici Doctoris d. Thomae Aquinatis. Petrum Dehuchinum.
  • Mittermaier, C. J. A. (1834). Die Lehre vom Beweise im deutschen Strafprozesse nach Fortbildung durch Gerichtsgebrauch und deutsche Gesetzbücher...
  • Mittermaier, C. J. A. (1850). Trattato della pruova in materia penale. Giuseppe Carluccio.
  • Mittermaier, C. J. A. (1851). Il processo orale accusatorio e per giurati secondo le varie legislazioni. Stefano Calderini e comp. – Nicola...
  • Mittermaier, C. J. A. (1858). Teoria della prova nel processo penale. Francesco Sanvito.
  • Morano, A. A. (1975). A re-examination of the Development of the Reasonable Doubt Rule. Boston University Law Review, 55(3), p. 507-529.
  • Nance, D. A. (2016). The Burden of Proof. Discriminatory Power, Weight of Evidence, and Tenacity of Belief. Cambridge University Press.
  • Neri, R. (2024). Judging Beyond Any Reasonable Doubt: A Logic and Epistemological Rule. Quaestio Facti, 7, p. 43-68.
  • Nieva Fenoll, J. (2010). La valoración de la prueba. Marcial Pons.
  • Nieva Fenoll, F. (2020). Carga de la prueba y estándares de prueba: dos reminiscencias del pasado. Estudios de Derecho, p. 119-148. https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.esde.v77n170a05
  • Nobili, M. (1974). Il principio deli libero convincimento del giudice. Giuffrè.
  • Nobili, M. (2004). Esiti, errori, arbitrii dietro un’illustre formula: gli ultimi trent’anni. In Il libero convincimento del giudice penale....
  • Padoa-Schioppa, A. (1999). Sur la conscience du juge dans le ius commune. In J.-M. Carbasse and L. Depambour-Tarride (Eds.), La Conscience...
  • Pagano, F. M. (1824). Principj del codice penale e logica de’ probabili. Luca Marotta.
  • Pardo, M. S. (2023). What Makes Evidence Sufficient?. Arizona Law Review, 65, p. 431-478.
  • Patuzzi, J. V. (1790). Ethica christiana sive Theologia moralis (Vol. I). Remondini.
  • Penim Pinheiro, J. (2021). Princípio in dubio pro reo - considerações gerais. Julgar Online. https://julgar.pt/principio-in-dubio-pro-reo-consideracoes-gerais/
  • Picinali, F. (2012). Structuring Inferential Reasoning in Criminal Fact Finding: An Analogical Theory. Law, Probability and Risk, 11(2-3),...
  • Picinali, F. (2015). The Threshold Lies in the Method: Instructing jurors about reasoning beyond reasonable doubt. The International Journal...
  • Picinali, F. (2022). Justice In-Between. A Study of Intermediate Criminal Verdicts. Oxford University Press.
  • Pierro, G. (2011). Accertamento del fatto e colpevolezza al di oltre di ogni ragionevole dubbio. Aracne.
  • Poli, R. (2023). Prova e convincimento giudiziale del fatto. Giappichelli.
  • Poullain-Duparc, A.M. (1771). Principe du droit français, suivant les maximes de Bretagne (Vol. XI). François Avatar.
  • Pradel J. (1985). Le déroulement du procès pénal français (aperçus comparatifs avec le droit canadien). Revue générale de droit, 16(3), p....
  • Pradel J. (2016). Droit pénal comparé (4th ed.). Dalloz.
  • Prakken, H., Bex, F., Mackor, A. R. (2020). Models of Rational Proof in Criminal Law. Topics in Cognitive Science, 12(4), p. 1053-1067.
  • Pufendorf, S. (1759). De Jure Naturæ et Gentium. Officina Knochiana.
  • Quattrocolo, S. (2020). Artificial Intelligence, Computational Modelling and Criminal Proceedings. A Framework for a European Legal Discussion....
  • Raynaldi, G. D. (1735). Obsevationum criminalium, civilium, & Mixtarum, Liber II, Observ. Typographia Balleoniana.
  • Richard, J. (2017). L’intime conviction du juge en matière criminelle. [Doctoral Thesis. Université Montpellier] https://theses.hal.science/tel-01610334v1/file/65991_RICHARD_2017_archivage.pdf
  • Roberts, P. (2011). Does Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights Require Reasoned Verdicts in Criminal Trials?. Human Rights...
  • Roberts, P. (2014). Loss of Innocence in Common Law Presumptions. Criminal Law and Philosophy, 8, p. 317-336.
  • Roberts, P. and Zuckerman, A. (2022). Criminal Evidence (3th ed.). Oxford University Press.
  • Romagnosi, G.D. (1874). Cenni sui sistemi della convinzione intima e delle prove legali, e sul calcolo degli indizi. In Opere di G.D. Romagnosi...
  • Rosoni (1995). Quae singula non prosunt collecta iuvant. La teoria della prova indiziaria nell’età medievale e moderna. Giuffrè.
  • Rovito, S. (1634). Decisiones Supremorum Tribunalium Regni Neapolitani. Iacobum Gassarum.
  • Saltzburg, S. A. and Capra, D.J. (2018). American Criminal Procedure. Cases and Commentary (11th ed.). West Academic Publishing.
  • Sanchez, T. (1622). Operis moralis in praecepta decalogi (Vol. II). Martinum Nutium.
  • Saraceno P. (1940). La decisione sul fatto incerto nel processo penale. Cedam.
  • Schum D. A. (1994). The Evidential Foundations of Probabilistic Reasoning. Northwestern University Press.
  • Shapiro, B. J. (1991). Beyond Reasonable Doubt and Probable Cause. University of California Press.
  • Shapiro, B. J. (2009). Changing Language, Unchanging Standard: From “Satisfied Conscience” to “Moral Certainty” and “Beyond Reasonable Doubt”....
  • Shapiro, B. J. (2012). Beyond Reasonable Doubt: The Evolution of a Concept. In Y. Batsaki et al. (Eds.), Fictions of Knowledge (pp. 19-39)....
  • Shapiro, B. J. (2014). ‘Beyond Reasonable Doubt’: The Neglected Eighteenth-Century Context. Law and Humanities, 8(1), p. 19-52.
  • Shapiro, B. J. (2022). The Problem of Certainty and the Changing Status of Probable Proofs. Philosophical Inquiries, 10(2), p. 117-137.
  • Shapiro, J.A. and Muth K.T. (2021). Al di là di ogni ragionevole dubbio: le giurie non lo capiscono. Criminalia, p. 53-69.
  • Sheppard, S. (2003), The Metamorphoses of Reasonable Doubt: How Changes in the Burden of Proof Have Weakened the Presumption of Innocence....
  • Shüssler, R. (2009). Jean Gerson, Moral Certainty and the Renaissance of Ancient Scepticism. Renaissance Studies, 23, p. 445-462.
  • Shüssler, R. (2019). The Debate on Probable Opinions in the Scholastic Tradition. Brill.
  • Sinistrari (1754). Formularium criminale. Pars II. Caroli Giannini.
  • Smith (1748). The Britons and Saxons Not Converted to Popery. James Bettenham.
  • Smith, O.K.H. (2022). The beyond a reasonable doubt standard of proof: Juror understanding and reform. The International Journal of Evidence...
  • Solan, L.M. (1999). Refocusing the Burden of Proof in Criminal Cases: Some Doubt about Reasonable Doubt. Texas Law Review, 78, p. 105-147.
  • Starkie, T. (1826). A Practical Treatise of the Law of Evidence, and Digest of Proofs, in Civil and Criminal Proceedings (Vol. I). West and...
  • Stella, F. (2003). Giustizia e modernità. La protezione dell’innocente e la tutela delle vittime (3th ed.). Giuffrè.
  • Stein, A. (2005). Foundations of Evidence Law. Oxford University Press.
  • Suarez, F. (1741). De Divina Gratia (Vol. VIII). Balleoniana.
  • Summers, S.J. (2023). The Epistemic Ambitions of the Criminal Trial: Truth, Proof, and Rights. Quaestio facti, 4, p. 249-272.
  • Stephen (1883). A History of the Criminal Law of England (Vol. I). MacMillan.
  • Taroni, F., Atiken, C., Garbolino,P., Biedermann, A. (2006). Bayesian Networks and Probabilistic Inference in Forensic Science (2nd ed.)....
  • Taroni, F., Biedermann, A. and Aitken, C. (2023). Statistical Interpretation of Evidence: Bayesian Analysis. In M.M. Houck (Ed.), Encyclopedia...
  • Taruffo, M. (1992). La prova dei fatti giuridici. Giuffrè.
  • Taruffo, M. (2003). Rethinking the Standards of Proof. The American Journal of Comparative Law, 51(3), p. 659-677.
  • Taruffo, M. (2005). Tres observaciones sobre “Por qué un estándar de prueba subjetivo y ambiguo no es un estándar”, de Larry Laudan. Doxa,...
  • Taruffo, M. (2009a). Fatto, prova e verità (alla luce del principio dell’oltre ogni ragionevole dubbio). Criminalia, p. 306-319.
  • Taruffo, M. (2009b). La semplice verità. Il giudice e la costruzione dei fatti. Laterza.
  • Thaman, S.C. (2016). Ensuring the factual reliability of criminal convictions: reasoned judgments or a return to formal rules of evidence?....
  • Thomas Aquinas (1265-1274). Summa Theologiae.
  • Tillers, P. (2011). Trial by mathematics – reconsidered. Law, Probability and Risk, 10, p. 167-173.
  • Tillers, P. and Gottfried, J. (2006). Case Comment – United States v. Copeland, 369 F. Supp. 2d 275 (E.D.N.Y. 2005). Law, Probability and...
  • Tribe, L.H. (1971). Trial by Mathematics: Precision and Ritual in the Legal Process. Harward Law Review, 84(6), p. 1329-1392.
  • Triggiani, N. (2017). Lo standard dimostrativo nella decisione di colpevolezza. In A. Incampo and A.Scalfati (Eds.), Giudizio penale e ragionevole...
  • Tuzet, G. (2020). L’algoritmo come pastore del giudice? Diritto, tecnologie, prova scientifica. Media Laws, p. 45-55.
  • Tuzet, G. (2021). Assessment and Standards of Proof: a Messy Issue. Quaestio facti, (2), p. 87-113.
  • Tuzet, G. (2023). La prova ragionata. Giuffrè.
  • Tuzet, G. (2024). Certainty Beyond a Reasonable Doubt. Contemporary Pragmatism, 20(4), p. 398-423.
  • Twining, W. (1991). The New Evidence Scholarship. Cardozo Law Review, 13, p. 295-302.
  • Ubertis, G. (2013). Razionalismo processuale e verità. Il giusto processo civile, p. 325-333.
  • Ubertis, G. (2021). Profili di epistemologia giudiziaria (2nd Ed.). Giuffrè.
  • Vassalli, G. (1968). Il diritto alla prova nel processo penale. Rivista italiana di diritto e procedura penale, p. 3-59.
  • Verhesschen, K. and Fijnaut, C. (2020). Correcting Wrongful Convictions in France. Erasmus Law Review, 4, p. 22-32.
  • Verricelli, A. M. (1653). Quaestiones morales, & legales, Franciscum Baba.
  • Voltaire (1818) Ouvres complètes. Politique et Législation (Vol. I, T. XXI). Plancher.
  • Waldron, J. (1994). Vagueness in Law and Language: Some Philosophical Issues. California Law Review, 82(3), p. 509-540.
  • Welch R.E. (2013). Give Me That Old Time Religion: The Persistence of the Webster Reasonable Doubt Instruction and the Need to Abandon It....
  • Wharton, F. (1880). A Treatise on the Law of Evidence in Criminal Issues (8th ed.). Kay and Brother.
  • Wigmore, J. (1940). A Treatise on the System of Evidence in Trials at Common Law (Vol. 9). Little, Brown & Company.
  • Whitman, J.Q. (2008). The Origins of Reasonable Doubt. Theological Roots of the Criminal Trial. Yale University Press.
  • Zander, M. (2000). The criminal standard of proof: how sure is sure?. New Law Journal, 1517-1519.
  • Zander, M. (2020). The criminal standard of proof: how sure is sure? Pt 2. New Law Journal, 7888. https://www.newlawjournal.co.uk/content/the-criminal-standard-of-proof-how-sure-is-sure-pt-2
  • Ajdarić v. Croatia, nº 20883/09, European Court of Human Rights, 13 December 2011
  • Barberà, Messegué and Jabardo v. Spain, nº 10590/83, European Court of Human Rights, 7 December 1988
  • Boaden, R v (2019) EWCA Crim 2284
  • Bogdanovic, R, v (2020) EWCA Crim 1229
  • Bundesgerichtshof (Germany), 1 StR 360/16, January 12, 2017
  • Bundesgerichtshof (Germany), 4 StR 554/16, May 11, 2017
  • Bundesgerichtshof (Germany), 1 StR 535/16, July 12, 2017
  • Bundesgerichtshof (Germany), 1 StR 261/17, November 21, 2017
  • Bundesgerichtshof (Germany), 2 StR 399/21, February 16, 2022
  • Cage v. Louisiana, 498 U.S. 39 (1990)
  • Coffin v. United States, 156 U.S. 453 (1895)
  • Commonwealth vs. John W. Webster (1850) 5 Cush. 295, 59 (Mass. 1850)
  • Court of Cassation Sentence (Italy), n. 1368, October 6, 1883. La Corte Suprema di Roma, 1883
  • Court of Cassation Sentence (Italy), Pressi, February 24, 1981. Rivista penale, 1981
  • Court of Cassation Sentence (Italy), Mattia, October 22, 1984. CED Cassazione, n. 167449
  • Court of Cassation Sentence (Italy), Joint Chambers, Franzese, July 10, 2002. Rivista italiana di diritto e procedura penale, 2002
  • Court of Cassation Sentence (Italy), Contena, May 12, 2004. Rivista italiana di diritto e procedura penale, 2004
  • Court of Cassation Sentence (Italy), n. 41110, October 24, 2011. CED Cassazione, n. 251507
  • Court of Cassation Sentence (Italy), n. 42056, May 26, 2016. DeJure.
  • Court of Cassation Sentence (Italy), n. 48541, June 19, 2018. CED Cassazione, n. 274358-01
  • Court of Cassation Sentence (Italy), n. 39777, October 2, 2023. DeJure
  • Court of Milan Sentence (Italy), of June 18, 2015. Diritto penale contemporaneo. https://archiviodpc.dirittopenaleuomo.org/d/4213-il-teorema-di-bayes-fa-capolino-al-tribunale-di-milano
  • Desir [2022] EWCA Crim 1071, 198
  • Directive (EU) 2016/343 of the European Parliament and of the Council, of 9 March 2016, on the strengthening of certain aspects of the presumption...
  • Directive (EU) 2016/680 of the European Parliament and of the Council, of 27 April 2016, on the protection of natural persons with regard...
  • Falk v. Netherlands, nº 66273/01, European Court of Human Rights, 19 October 2004
  • Gäfgen v Germany, nº 22978/05, European Court of Human Rights, 3 June 3010
  • Hepworth and Fearnley (1955) 2 QB 600, 603
  • Holland v. United States, 348 U.S. 140 (1954)
  • In re Winship, 397 U.S. 358 (1970)
  • Jackson v. Virginia, 443 U.S. 307, 309, 323-24 (1979)
  • Kerimoğlu v. Turkey, nº 29600/10, European Court of Human Rights, 6 December 2022
  • Kritz [1950] K.B. 82, 88-90
  • Lifchus (1997) 3 SCR 320
  • Majid [2009] EWCA Crim 2563
  • Manuela et al. v. El Salvador, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, November 2, 2021
  • Miah (2018) EWCA Crim 563
  • Miles v. United States, 103 U.S. 312 (1880)
  • Miller v. Minister of Pensions (1947) 2 All ER 372
  • Mohammad & Another (2022) EWCA Crim 380
  • Murphy v. Holland, (1985) 776 F.2d470, (4th Cir. 1985)
  • People v. Downs (2015) IL 117934, 32. (Il. 2015)
  • Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, c. 60 https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1984/60/contents
  • R v JL (2017) EWCA Crim 621
  • R v Yap Chuan Ching (1976) 63 Cr App Rep 7, 11
  • Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence...
  • Ramos v. Louisiana, 590 U.S. (2020)
  • Roura v. The State, 214 Ga. App. 43 (Ga. 1994)
  • Salabiaku v. France, nº 10519/83, European Court of Human Rights, 7 October 1988
  • Sullivan v. Louisiana, 508 U.S. 275 (1993)
  • Summers (1952) 36 Cr. App. R. 14, 15
  • Supremo Tribunal de Justiça Sentence (Portugal), SJ200801100041985, of January 10, 2008. https://www.dgsi.pt/jstj.nsf/954f0ce6ad9dd8b980256b5f003fa814/7bfd4fddcd30787d802573d2003c2015?Open-Document
  • State v. Mitchell, 577 N.W.2d 481, 485 (Minn. 1998)
  • Taxquet v. Belgium, nº 926/05, European Court of Human Rights, 16 November 2010
  • Tribunal Constitucional Sentence (Spain), 129/1998 (First Chamber), of 16 June 1998 (appeal 1331/1995) - ES:TC:1998:129
  • Tribunal Supremo Sentence (Spain), 2254/2023 (Criminal Court), 21 September 2023
  • Victor v. Nebraska, 511 U.S. 14 (1994).
  • Wanhalla (2006) NZCA 229.
  • Woolmington v D.P.P. (1935) AC 462.